Empirical Mishaps: Science in Percy's Love in the Ruins and Ellison's The Invisible Man.

Numerous twentieth century writers have questioned and rebelled against science and its motives towards humanity. Author Ralph Ellison, in his novel The Invisible man, has a nameless protagonist that struggles against science and its disregard towards humankind for the sake of progress and the reckless treatment and experimentation of patients. Walker Percy's hero Tom More, from Love in the Ruins, challenges behaviorism in science, utilitarianism, and the struggle against the individual. Both characters share the thematic idea that science has its fundamental shortcomings and reject the omniscient, infallible nature of science. Modern day novels, such Ellison's Invisible Man and Percy's Love in the Ruins, have a general skepticism towards the rights of the individual human in science, Skinner and his behaviorism, and the Utilitarian philosophy for solving the problems of the human condition.

Lack of morality and the unethical procedures in science from doctors, scientists, and others towards human patients and subjects is a serious issue in both novels. Both More and the Invisible man (IM) have vehement beliefs that science has little, if any, regard for the "individuality" of human beings. This concept dates back from the eighteen-century and the writings of Kant. His over two hundred-year-old criticism states, "human beings are to be treated as ends in themselves, never merely a means" (84). Kant foresaw a disturbing debacle that science could inflict when its subjects became humans. To summarize Kant, people are not intended to become guinea pigs to the experiments of science. Although individuals could willingly become vassals of science and contribute to its progress, it should be left to those who want such an action. The IM undergoes this prediction of Kant, after his horrific accident at the ironic "Liberty" paints, and becomes a guinea pig for several company doctors. The IM's first impression of this bizarre scenario was one of compassion, trust, and he recalls, "I was in a hospital. They would care for me. It was all geared toward the easing of pain. I felt thankful" (233). Unknown to the weakened IM, the "Liberty" doctors do more than heal Ellison's tragic hero. "The machine will produce the results of a prefrontal lobotomy without the negative effects of the knife," (236) explains the doctor. While the IM recovers from this unwarranted surgery, the scientists of "Liberty" paints proceed with a series of experiments. One instance, they deliberately increase a shock treatment on the IM for their own amusement and ends. One scientist comments, "They really do have rhythm, don't they? Get it hot, boy! Get hot" (237)! Furthermore, the doctors even disagree towards the mental capacity of their patient:

"But what of his psychology?"
"Absolutely of no importance!" (236)
If that was not enough for the IM to endure, his conspirators capriciously experiment upon the hapless hero unsure of the results:
"Then why don't you try more current?"
"You suggest it?"
"I do, why not?"
"But isn't there a danger…" (237)

The hospital episode in Invisible Man is Ellison's belief that science, when ethics are ignored, cause serious injuries at the expense of individuals.

The protagonist Tom More of Love in the Ruins is a participating member of the scientific community with his Ontological Lapsometer. Doctor Tom More is a staunch advocate of the Kant ideal that the human being has "individuality" from science and firmly rejects the philosophy of B. F. Skinner and the conditioning method of psychology. Conditioning, experimentation upon a subject and measuring their conditioned responses, cannot adequately uncover the motivations and behaviors of humanity because of the "individuality" of humans. Critic Martin Luschei explains that conditioning cannot be imposed upon human beings because they are not mere animals:

Is man simply an organism to be controlled and treated by proper conditioning, a mere piano key, or is he that testy and paradoxical being who emerged from Dostoevski's underground to proclaim his freedom and boast of his bad liver? Can he find breathing space in the new Crystal Palace of the behaviorists of will he smash the windows in search of open sky? (82)

A representation of this idea comes from the character Mr. Ives, in Love in the Ruins, when scientists that want to send him to the "Happy Island of Georgia," a euthanasia clinic, erroneously incarcerate him. Doctor Buddy Brown reports, "Despite extensive reconditioning in the Skinner box, the patient continued to exhibit antisocial behavior. This behavior occurred before his stroke last month" (189). Unknown to Brown, Ives condition is not one of a stroke but a response that only a human can demonstrate, the decision to not respond at all. Recalling his forced observation in a Skinner box, and affirming Percy's own rejection of this particular aspect of science, Mr. Ives responds, "There is only one kind of response to those who would control your responses by throwing you in a Skinner box… To refuse to respond at all" (198).

In addition, after More's botched suicide, his behaviorist friend Max confronts him and attempts to explain his guilt associated with the night of passion with Lola. More explains to Max "the problem is that if there is no guilt, contrition, and a purpose of amendment, the sin cannot be forgiven" (100). More's suicide has nothing to do with his guilt towards his intercourse with Lola. Believing that his inability to have guilt or remorse from his actions is in conflict with More's ability to correct the problem or ever do it again. The strong Catholic background in Tom More tells him that premarital sex is wrong, but the act gives him "great pleasure to do so." More is torn between his "beliefs and his actions" and the decision to make the right choice based upon his beliefs. After arguing unsuccessfully back and forth, Max concludes that these emotions, belief and action, could be "conditioned" out of More's conscience:

"If you would come back and get into the Skinner box, we could straighten it out."
"The Skinner box wouldn't help."
"We could condition away the contradiction. You'd never feel guilt."
"Then I'd really be up the creek."
"I'm trying to see it."
"I know you are." (100)

More rejects Max's insistence that conditioning will solve his problem because More's "individuality" gives him the freedom of choice. More will not be conditioned not to feel guilt, because guilt is a human emotion and not an action. Percy understands this binary relationship of conditioned responses and actions but doubts this practice can solve the complex network of embedded emotions exclusive to the human psyche.

Followers of Utilitarianism believe "there is only one source of morally acceptable conduct, namely general well-being or the greatest happiness for the greatest number." Appling this principle to science raises many moral questions. This anti-capitalist/democratic ideal is not necessarily in the best interest of the individual. John Atwell comments, "Little regard is paid to the utilitarian duty of beneficence and even self-sacrifice" (93). Furthermore, Atwell theorizes that Utilitarianism is "[In] itself morally neutral, any behavior is potentially right or justified- including every form of 'using' people, when it means manipulating, exploiting, or deceiving them" (94). Sympathizing with the "greater happiness for the greatest number," ignores the needs and wants of the individual. Both IM and More believe in the "individuality" of the individual, which outweighs the scientific pursuit of achieving the greater good for humanity when it is at a potential cost to an individual. For example, the penalty of becoming elderly in the Utilitarian world of Love in the Ruins, according to Dr. More, is the reconditioning of the individual and the placement into a Senior Citizen compound. If those citizens are then exiled from this compound, for various reasons, they are taken back for more reconditioning, and for those that respond positively, are back into the compound. Those that respond negatively to the reconditioning are then forwarded to a euthanasia facility in Georgia. This Utilitarian extremity towards the elderly is a reality in Love in the Ruins and Doctor More once again encounters this situation in the pit scene of the novel. Tom More, when confronted with the prospect that his patient will be sent to death for being antisocial at the Senior Citizen Compound, argues, "If Mr. Ives is going to be referred to the Happy Isles of Georgia, which is nothing but a euthanasia facility, he has the right to know it and to prepare himself accordingly. And he has the right to know who his executioner is" (190). More knows the ethics behind the treatment of the elderly is wrong and blames the Utilitarian nature of the government. In addition, More detests the behaviorists, in this scene Buddy Brown, that proclaim that Mr. Ives is a threat to those around him and unresponsive to his reconditioning in the Skinner box.

The Utilitarian theme that large groups control science and exploit individuals for the "greater good" of humanity is explored in Ellison's Invisible Man. The "Brotherhood," an organization reminiscent of Socialism, uses scientific objectivity to manipulate other social groups in order to achieve their own political agenda. When confronted by the IM about his district of Harlem, Brother Jack exhorts, "Such crowds are only our raw materials, one of the raw materials to be shaped to our program" (472). Ultimately, while Harlem is sacrificed in the name of "scientific objectivity," the IM reflects, "The committee had planned it. And I had helped, had been a tool" (559). The IM sees that he has "become a natural resource" for this organization:

Look at me! Look at me! Everywhere I've turned somebody has wanted to sacrifice me for my good-- only they were the ones who benefited. And now we start on the old sacrificial merry-go-round. At what point do we stop? (405)

Ellison believes that this organization and other political machines are quick to sacrifice the individual, or the natural resource, for their own benefit and idealized society. Yet, what authority and voice do these institutions have upon the individual man and the "pursuit of happiness?" The IM calls himself a "resource," and rightfully so, in a machine operated by the Brotherhood and realizes that he does have a choice, like to Mr. Ives, not to be part of its regime.

Percy and Ellison both reject the themes of Utilitarianism, Behaviorism, especially the reconditioning nature of the Skinner box, and the role and ethics of the individual researched by science. Realizing the harsh institution of the "Brotherhood" and the oppressive world around him, the IM temporarily hides and resumes his quest to find his identity. Another theme of Ellison's Invisible man is diversity as the answer to problems with society and its inability to solve the race problem. Diversity also plays a role with science and the recognition that humanity, with its broad diversities, is impossible based upon conditioning and utilitarian means alone. Tom More uncovers a population unready to cope with his Ontological Lapsometer and discovers that diagnosis of individuals must be insightful and ignore the tendency to attack every problem empirically and through the senses. Although science is a powerful tool for humanity, its limited empirical approaches cannot solve all the problems of the world. A diversity of people working together is the answer towards tackling the major ailments of the world and not its insistence that science alone can solve these problems.